How Tunnel Boring Machines Work

March 14, 2021 HFM Leave a comment

NYC subway tunnel with tracks crossing — NYC Subway Tunnel. Note the concrete slabs, called rings on the sides and ceiling of the tunnel Photo by wirestock – freepik.com

Did you ever wonder how a tunnel is created? Well, you’ve come to the right place.

Human ingenuity has taken us from the industrial revolution to space exploration, but it has also taken us underground, from the giant Bagger 293 bucket wheel excavator for mining to machines that crush through the dirt to make tunnels deep below the surface.

A Little Tunnel History

In the earlier days, boring through the underground required many hours of tedious labor. It was not just the dig that was time-consuming but buttressing the area around the tunnel so that it stayed safe was also tedious.

Men would create concrete rings and secure them along the top of the tunnel and alongside the walls. This would ensure that the tunnel didn’t weaken and collapse.

Greathead-tunnelling-shield — Assembling concrete rings were previously done with manual labor

The process of securing the tunnel by hand was the normal way of doing things back in the day, but now, all that hard, unhealthy labor is a thing of the past. Why? Enter the tunnel boring machine (TBM).

The Tunnel Boring Machine

Power Saw — Photo by Greyson Joralemon on Unsplash

If there was ever a device that one would call a machine, the TBM would be just that. Large, noisy but effective, it is used to cut through soil and rock much like a power saw is used on wood. As the saw’s steel blade spins, it cuts right through the wood, which is similar to the job of the boring machine, only larger. Much larger!

How Does the TBM Work?

The machine consists of three major parts (actually, a lot more, but we’ll keep it simple so that we don’t bore (pun intended) you with all the intricate details).

The Three Parts are:

Cutter-head (front)
Tunnel shield (middle)
Trailing gear (rear)

Of course, each of these sections is made up of smaller parts and together they comprise the boring machine.

The Cutting Head

Preparation for TBM cutting head to be lowered into a tunnel. Photo by david carballar on Unsplash

We spoke about the saw, but what does this saw have that cuts the wood so precisely? It is a circular piece of steel with cutting blades.

For the TBM, they are called disc cutters and are integrated onto the edges of a round piece of steel. For the TBM, the cutting head is located at the very front of the machine.

As the boring machine’s cutter-head rotates, it breaks through the rock and/or soil at a rate of 2.7 revolutions per minute and at a pace of about 50 feet per day.

The machine looks like a giant worm, expanding about 272 feet in length. It is this long because after the soil is extracted, it is sent down long conveyor belts where it is extracted to the surface and carted away. See these videos below, which provide expert explanations about how the Tunnel Boring Machine operates.

The Tunnel Shield

A tunneling shield is a cylindrical protective structure that is located just behind the cutting head and is used to shelter the workers from the dangers of falling dirt and debris and/or actual collapse of the tunnel.

The shield is used as a temporary support structure until the tunnel is secured with concrete (see Tunnel Rings below). The first shield was designed by Marc Isambard Brunel and was rectangular in design with iron scaffolding and consisting of three levels. Then it was later modified into a cylindrical form, which is what is used today.

What are Tunnel Rings?

The tunneling shield is designed to be used only until the tunnel is safely secured with a more permanent process; as such, prefabricated concrete rings are secured along the roof and sides of the tunnel to stabilize it and turn it into a permanent structure. The process begins when the cutting head stops spinning, synchronized to do so each time a new set of rings are needed to be installed.

A robot called an erector lifts each ring and sets it in place along the tunnel lining, resulting in a solid cylindrical wall of concrete at the top and along the sidewalls, subsequently maintaining the structural integrity of the tunnel.

The rings are assembled as segments from above-ground factories. They are transported from the factory to the tunnel location, moved down into the tunnel and onto the boring machine where the erector lifts them and secures them inside the tunnel.

Precast molded lining sections were first patented in 1874 by James Henry Greathead, a mechanical and civil engineer famous for his work on the London Underground. Greathead also improved the tunnel shield from its rectangle form into its current form of cylindrical steel.

This process of cutting through the dirt then stopping so that the rings can be installed alternates every 5–7 feet. The cutting heads spin, evacuating the earth in front of it, then stops and the erector builds the supporting rings and then the cutting head begins to spin again, moving forward at its slow but efficient pace.

Trailing Gear

How Does the Evacuated Dirt and Rock Get Taken Out from Underground?

Tunnel Boring Machine trailer section. Screenshot from video HerrenknechtAG

Enter the trailing mechanisms. They include a conveyor belt that removes the soil that was excavated from the cutter head. As the cutter pulls dirt out, it places it onto a belt conveyor which consists of a machine belt, cross belt and a tunnel belt. The tunnel belt is dynamic, in that it expands as the machine digs forward. The tunnel belt can expand up to 18 miles back to the extraction point where the soil is lifted to the ground.

The first two belts, the machine and cross belt are located at the very front of the TBM and the tunnel belt is the conveyor that moves the debris through the TBM to the area where it is taken out of the tunnel.

Summary

The engineering that goes into the assembly of a tunnel boring machine is quite sophisticated, but fascinating as well.

In this article, we simplified the process so that it can be easily understandable and we hope you were able to gain a good understanding of how tunnels are created, so the next time you drive through a tunnel or ride through the subway, you can be grateful for the ingenuity and hard work of the people who built it.

Precious Metals

Palladium – A Metal More Precious than Gold

March 13, 2021 HFM Leave a comment

Overview

Pallidum Metal — Hi-Res Images of Chemical Elements, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

You might have noticed that palladium is listed in the metal exchanges along with gold and platinum. That is because it is one of the most precious metals found on Earth. Palladium is a silvery, shiny metal that gives color to white gold. It was discovered in 1803 by an English chemist William Hyde Wollaston.

The metal was first isolated following a series of chemical reactions that involved dissolving platinum with several other acids, including hydrochloric acid and nitric acid. However, it was not until 1805 that the researchers working on discovering this precious metal declared it as a newly found element.

The rare metal, palladium, gets its name from “Pallas” which is the third-largest asteroid in the asteroid belt and was discovered in 1802, shortly before the discovery of palladium.

Chemically, Palladium is one of six elements in the platinum group which consists of the following:

- Platinum
- Rhodium
- Ruthenium
- Osmium and
- Iridium

These elements’ chemical structure makes them an excellent catalyst and therefore, they have wide industrial applications. But before we get into its uses, let’s look at a few facts about this rare metal.

- Symbol – Pd
- Atomic Number – 46
- Atomic Weight – 106.4
- Density – 12.02 g/cm3
- State at Room Temperature – Solid
- Melting Point – 2,831oF
- Boiling Point – 5,360 oF
- # of isotopes – 29
- The metal is malleable and ductile
- Palladium does not react with air

Uses of Palladium

Let’s look at some of the most common uses of palladium and the industries that use it.

Automotive

One of the biggest industrial users of palladium in the automotive industry, where the metal is used as a catalytic converter. It works by changing most polluting compounds’ chemical composition so they become less environmentally harmful chemicals. For years, palladium was the top choice for catalysts, but given the significant increase in the price of the metal, automotive manufacturers are starting to look for less pricey alternatives.

Precious Metals

Another common use of palladium is its use as an investment asset. Given the metal’s rarity, it is one of the highly valued investments and is considered a safe store of value. It is because of its value that the palladium coins and bars have been issued and used as an investment by investors around the world.

Jewelry

While yellow, traditional gold is still preferred for jewelry, white gold is another popular metal. Palladium is used as one of the alloys that give strength, color, and shiny texture to white gold. Its pure form is malleable and soft with a 950 fineness.

Dentistry

Palladium is also used in dental amalgams. The rare metal is combined with small amounts of silver, copper, mercury, and tin to help fight against dental corrosion. Moreover, it improves the stability and quality of dental fillings. While palladium is used in minimal quantities, use in dentistry is one of its most critical uses.

Other Uses

- The use in electronic industry
- In the manufacturing of professional, concert-grade flutes
- Photographic printing
- Fuel cells, including hydrogen purification

What Makes Palladium More Valuable than Gold?

Investment Graph — Photo by Markus Winkler on Unsplash

Now that you already know what palladium is and what are some of its common uses, let’s look at the most important question. What makes palladium more valuable than gold?

In 2019, palladium was one of the four most expensive metals along with gold and platinum. But the trend continued long after 2019, and the precious metal is still one of the most expensive metals out there. Here are a few reasons for the increasing price trend.

The demand for palladium, particularly from the automotive industry, continued to rise as the world became more environmentally friendly and the demand from China particularly rose as pollution is a major concern.

Moreover, the supply side didn’t respond much to the rising demand. The metal is primarily mined in South Africa and Russia and the producers are not proactive in reacting to the increasing demand. In 2021, the supply fell short of the demand for the 10th year in a row.

Did You Know?

- According to the USGS, the U.S. is one of the biggest platinum group importers (which also includes palladium).
- Palladium has an incredible power to absorb hydrogen. This rare metal can absorb up to 900 times its volume of hydrogen. Because of this ability, palladium is widely used to purify and store highly volatile hydrogen gas.
- Palladium is used for photo printing that makes your photographs look long-lasting. The process uses palladium salts, which become embedded in the photo paper and give it a matte appearance and longevity.
- While palladium is relatively inactive, gold jewelry can cause allergic reactions in some people. If you already have a nickel allergy, you are at a higher risk of sensitivity from palladium as well.
- Palladium can be somewhat toxic for the human body, but the metal decreases the heart rate and blood pressure. Moreover, it can lead to kidney and liver damage as well as cause damage to the bone marrow. Compounds of palladium such as palladium chloride can be toxic when inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through the skin.

Latest on the Precious Metal

The supply of palladium has been falling short for a decade now, but here is some good news about this precious metal. Researchers at Brown University and Rhode Island have found a new way to use the cheaper palladium nanoparticles, which work as a kind of catalytic converter to facilitate water filtration.

The prototype water filtration system is currently under testing. The objective is to find out if the system can work on a larger scale at a low cost.

Moreover, research in other areas such as hydrogen storage ability is also underway. Soon other considerations may materialize for palladium. But investing in pallidum to diverse your investment portfolio might not be a bad idea in the long run, especially during this COVID crisis. We will just have to wait and see.

Jewerly, Minerals

6 Reasons Why She Will Feel Special When You Give Her Amethyst

March 6, 2021 HFM Leave a comment

When it comes to expressing love through jewels, the diamond is considered the top choice and colored diamonds are even more in desire; however, rare. But contrary to popular belief, this sparkling gem is not the only gem that signifies true love; amethyst is an equally strong contender to express devotion to one’s paramour.

The dark and deep, vivaciously violet gemstone is an enchanting mineral that also happens to be the birthstone for February, the month of love. Hence, it only makes sense that lovers present the purple gemstone to one another when professing their love.

With the world in a state of chaos, primarily due to the pandemic, people are learning to be grateful for the blessings they have, such as a loving partner. This means lovers are searching far and wide to present a thoughtful gift to their beau to appreciate them.

While a meaningful present could be anything for different people, for most, a stunning piece of crystal tucked in a pendant or ring seems to be the perfect souvenir embodying love. If you also belong to the pro-diamond camp, we have an alluring proposition for you. This time around, choose a different route and go with amethyst to surprise your other half. Why you ask? Here’s why.

Amethyst is The Jewel of Gods

If you are one of the mythical lovers, then you can choose amethyst to express your feelings to your beau. Traditionally, and even until now, the pretty purple crystal is believed to be the choice of bishops because of its supposed pure essence. Hence, if you have realized how much your partner means to you and want to relay your heartfelt emotions, go for amethyst and be sure to educate her about the fantastic qualities of amethyst to make your gift all the more meaningful.

Amethyst is Stunning Yet Affordable

Amethyst is as stunning as most other precious stones without even being one, which means you get all the glittery glamour of an exclusive gem without the cost associated with other gemstones. Simply put, the purple sparkler is just as sparkling as any other precious stone but at reasonable prices.

So now, you can charm your beau with a thoughtful gift without burdening your pocket much. That’s not to say that you shouldn’t splurge once in a while, but with amethyst, you can enjoy class even when the budget is a bit tight!

Amethyst Goes Well With The Colors of Winter

The chilly season colors the environment in soft, cool pastel shades, creating a romantic ambiance all over. With such a peaceful atmosphere around in the frosty weather, you want to give your partner something that’s not too overpowering while being sufficiently impactful. So, if you plan to present a sparkler to your paramour, you need something that blends in well, like the stunning amethyst.

Amethyst comes in gorgeous shades of purple that do not stand out too much instead complement the winter season.

Amethyst is the Birthstone of February

If you are into astrology, you must know of the birthstones of all the twelve months of the year.

And as it turns out, amethyst is the birthstone of February, which means it’s the perfect present to celebrate true love.

Saint Valentine’s Ring Had Amethyst

Anyone who knows of Valentine’s Day (which means everyone, because who doesn’t) must have heard of Saint Valentines, the man supposedly responsible for the day of love.

Saint Valentine was a Roman priest in the third century who officiated secret weddings against the authorities. In other words, it can be said that Saint Valentines was a fervent advocate of love, no matter how forbidden. He was later captured and imprisoned at a noble’s home, where he healed his captor’s blind daughter and converted the entire household into Christianity. Consequently, Saint Valentine was tortured and killed on February 14th. But before dying, he wrote a letter to the girl and signed it as your valentine.

Whether the story of Saint Valentine is the real narrative behind the day of love or not, one thing is for sure that the Roman Priest was a dedicated supporter of love. So, it’s only natural to give your paramour something that is linked with the legendary Saint Valentines like amethyst.

Legend has it that the Roman Priest also used to wear a ring that had an amethyst with a picture of cupid on top. You don’t need to have a tiny cupid on your purple stone as long as you have the violet stone to celebrate the love between you and your significant other, you are on the right path.

Amethyst Makes You Wise or So Leonardo Da Vinci Thought

The famous Italian painter and polymath Leonardo Da Vinci, known for his knowledge, talent and vision, admired the alluring amethyst like no other. He believed that amethyst makes a person wise, frees them from evil thoughts and helps them become shrewd when running business affairs.

Whether the Italian savant was right to think so highly of amethyst or just spoke his mind based on experience can never be known. But if you want to follow in the footsteps of a legendary scholar, you should definitely look into buying an amethyst. Even if not for your partner, then buy the violet crystal for yourself to show some self-love because why not?

Amethyst Keeps You Sober

If your partner likes to down liquor a bit much, you should buy them amethyst to keep them from getting intoxicated beyond their capacity.

The epithet amethyst comes from a Greek word, amethystos, which means remedy against intoxication. Hence, the ancients considered the purple sparkler an aid against drunkenness. The Egyptians would wear amethyst as the gem of protection in amulets around the chest.

Get your better-half an amethyst- also fondly called nature’s tranquilizer, to appease the drinker in them while ensuring they’ll be safe, naturally!

The Bottom Line

Amethyst is not just pretty; it’s also quite sturdy, which is evident from its score on the Mohs scale of hardness. The violet gem has a whopping 7, which may not be as high as the diamond’s 9; it’s still enough to last a lifetime.

So don’t wait for another second to tell your partner how much they mean to you and how grateful you are to have them in your life with a gorgeous piece of jewelry flaunting a chunky amethyst.

Want to know more about Amethyst, visit our page here.

Minerals

What Your Birthstone Says About You?

March 6, 2021 HFM Leave a comment

Purple mineral in a ring setting — Photo Pixaby

What Does Your Birthstone Say About You?

While a birthstone is a great piece of jewelry that may look nice on your finger, it does so much more. They can be a representation of your personality traits. Each birthstone is one-of-a-kind and symbolizes different meanings. Do you want to know how your birthstone describes you? Find out here!

1. January- Garnet

This deep red gemstone resembles a pomegranate seed. It is one-of-a-kind and comes in many different shades, such as orange, purple, green and pink, but is most famous for its dark red hue.

If you follow the mystifying values of gemstones, the garnet is known to represent confidence and give off positive energy. They are also known to symbolize caring and empathy. And there are more spiritual elements to this gem. It is supposed to provide you with spontaneous personalities and feisty ones at that.

If garnet is your birthstone, you’re likely to take on the challenges that come your way.

2. February- Amethyst

Purple Amethyst in a ring setting — Photo Pixaby

According to early legends, this stone has been long associated with Bacchus, the Roman god of agriculture, wine, and fertility. If you follow mythology, this Roman god is equivalent to the Greek god Dionysus.

This is probably because of its color, which is a deep purple. Amherst itself is known to symbolize peace and tranquility and is a potent gemstone when it comes to religious jewelry; the pope wears an amethyst ring apart from his other jewels.; although, we are sure it’s not because he believes in Bacchus and Dionysus, but maybe it is just because of the gemstone’s beauty.

If amethyst is your birthstone, you are likely to be intelligent, kind, gentle as well as spiritual. You are also probably great at business and are positive and optimistic in nature. Not only are they known to be calm, but have a calming effect on others as well.

For more information on Amethyst, check out our 2018 article.

3. March- Aquamarine

Aquamarine stone on a ring — Photo by Andy Holmes on Unsplash

Like the ocean? Then this gem is for you! As you can guess, especially by its name, this gorgeous stone is associated with the sea. Its colors vary from greens to blues, the rarest of which is a dark blue.

In some ancient cultures, people believed that this stone could guard sailors and ensure them a safe voyage.

Those with this birthstone are known to be straightforward, great at communication and inspiring. They are also great at settling disputes in a fair and just manner. We can use them more than ever now!

4. April – Diamond

Sparkling Diamond — Diamond gem with reflection on blue background

What’s the first thing that comes to your mind when you think of diamonds? Its shine? Cut? Hardness? Diamonds, probably the most famous mineral known are also the most sort after stone in the world.

Well, April borns are known to be strong just like the diamond. In addition, they are courageous, positive and pure-hearted; however, they can also be pretty stubborn, after all, they take after the hardiness of their stone. They are also determined and when they make up their mind to do something, nothing can get in the way. Their strong character, paired with their strict moral code makes them extremely loyal and dependable, so if you have a friend born in April, don’t let them go.

And if you are thinking about getting one for yourself or your loved one, don’t forget about the 4 Cs!

5. May – Emerald

This exotic green gem is luxurious in nature. Those born in May are known to be empaths; they are loving, kind and go out of their way to help others.

They give excellent advice and value honest relationships. Many borns are also known to be romantics just as the stone has associations with love and fertility and are also great at matchmaking! Because they are empaths, they can be a little introverted and prefer small gatherings to bigger groups.

6. June – Pearl

Woman wearing pearls — Photo by JJ Jordan on Unsplash

This beautiful gemstone will always be a classic. They come from the water and are radiant. Those born in this month are considered to be fiercely loyal, considerate, patient and thoughtful.

They also love to travel and love getting out of their comfort zone. If you have this birthstone, you are known to make great decisions and should listen to your intuition more often.

7. July – Ruby

Ruby is considered to be the king of gems, so if you’re born in July you’re pretty lucky. Those with this birthstone are known to have a zest for life, are bold and courageous as well as ambitious. Their confident nature makes them great leaders. They give off energy and can charm anyone around them.

8. August – Peridot

This stone is vibrant in color and radiates positive energy. August borns are known to be extra loving and thoughtful. They give off a warm and welcoming aura that attracts people to them, whether strangers or friends. They are bold and not afraid to be who they are. August borns are extroverts and can get anyone to trust them due to their friendly vibe.

9. September – Sapphire

This precious mineral comes in a variety of colors, but is most famous for its blue color. People with this stone are considered to be calm and slightly introverted, only opening up to people they are close to. It takes them time to build trust with someone, but when they do, it is usually life-long. They are wise and think carefully before they speak.

10. October – Pink Tourmaline

This exotic gem comes in the most delicious hues of pinks. Over the years, it has been known to possess many healing powers. Those who have this birthstone are considered to be lively and passionate. They are also known to have a great intuitive sense. Although they seem calm on the outside, don’t be fooled! These October borns are restless and have an urge to explore the world. Their minds are the opposite of calm and are always thinking about what’s next.

11. November – Topaz

Those with this birthstone are considered to be extremely lucky. They are known to have it all, whether it’s finances, travel, career, etc. This birthstone holder has an important role to play in the lives of the people around them. Not only are they the life of the party but also the glue that holds their family together. They give off positive energy and therefore attract that in return.

12. December – Blue Topaz

This one of a kind stone is known for its breathtaking shades of blues. Those born in this month are considered to be old souls and wise beyond their years. They are famous for being friendly and can get along with practically anyone around them. December borns attract love and are loving and caring themselves. They are creative and make great lovers.

Diamonds

Classic Diamonds vs. Color Diamonds

February 27, 2021 HFM Leave a comment

Surprised Woman — Photo by Sincerely Media on Unsplash

Can you imagine the look on your partner’s face when you give her a colored diamond engagement ring instead of a pure white one? Maybe she was expecting a ring, but one in color? Wow!

Overview

Colored Diamonds on a black background — Photo: Bigstock

Colored diamonds are rare, and subsequently, more expensive than the classic gemstones we are most familiar with. The reason is because of the rare way that they are naturally formed.

As a result, the few that are found (in comparison to the many white diamonds that are found) will be more valuable and hence more expensive, but the interest in colored diamonds is increasing.

Here is what you need to know about the classic diamonds and colored ones from how they were formed to the colors available and pricing.

Formation

The formation of colored diamonds and colorless ones is quite similar. Both consist of carbon atoms, which are transformed at super high temperatures while being subjected to extreme pressure over the course of hundreds of thousands or even millions of years within the earth’s crust.

Although both types of diamonds are created in a similar manner, the difference with colored diamonds is that chemicals seep into them during their formation. The color of the stone depends on the kinds of minerals that were there when the diamond was initially formed. This is what makes colored diamonds so unique and rare.

Both types of diamonds score a 10 on the Mohs scale, making these minerals among the sturdiest natural materials found on earth.

Colors

While the colorless diamond is more or less transparent, the colored ones come in almost every shade under the sun. White diamonds sometimes have subtle hues of yellows and browns but that affects their value. A perfect white diamond is considered one that has no hints of any color, but also affects its value, as colorless diamonds can be fairly expensive. White diamonds would correspond to categories D, E, and F on the diamond color chart.

Colored diamonds come in over 200 combinations, from purplish reds or orange-yellowish and greenish blues. They too fall into different categories. Some colors are more valuable and expensive than others depending on their rarity. Some of the most popular diamonds are yellow, pink, blue, black, and of course red. Different people have different color preferences and it also depends on the prices as some are way more expensive than others.

Which are the Rarest Diamonds?

There’s no doubt that all colored diamonds are rare, however, there are some, which are rarer than others. The ones that are the rarest in the world are auctioned for hundreds and thousands of dollars and can even go up to the millions.

The one that is the rarest and hence, the most expensive is the red diamond. It is mostly found in Africa, Australia, and Brazil. They are so rare that there are only about 20-30 real red diamonds, most of which are less than half a carat in size. Just like colorless diamonds, red diamonds are made purely from carbon. It gets its color from a rare occurrence in its atomic structure. It is important to note that they look different in different lighting, the stronger the red, the higher it is in terms of value.

Yellow diamonds are considered to be the most common and desirable when it comes to colored diamonds, however, they too are rare. This is also the case for pink diamonds. Among some of the rarest include blue diamonds and orange diamonds as well.

Diamond Prices

It is interesting to know that within the same color of a diamond, there are many different prices. These depend on a combination of saturation as well as tone. The stronger the color will yield the higher price. According to the GIA, the color grading is split into nine intensities, from faint and very light to vivid, fancy dark, and fancy deep. This is what essentially affects the price and demand of a diamond.

Colorless diamonds are generally considered to be a lot less pricey as compared to colored ones. However, the purest and most flawless colorless diamonds are also rare and therefore quite pricey. A flawless diamond will probably cost you between $12,500-15,000 per carat. However the average price can range from $1,500-$21,000 so it all depends on the 4 C’s (color, carat, clarity, and cut).

Since red diamonds are the rarest, don’t be surprised to hear that they are also the most expensive. Generally, it would cost around $300,000 per carat. Its price varies depending on the intensity of the red color on the stone. A brown diamond for instance would cost much less as compared to a red one.

The world’s largest known red diamond is the trilliant cut 5.11-carat Moussaieff Red and was sold for over $1.6 million per carat. It was purchased by Shlomo Moussaieff, an Israeli-born jewelry dealer located in London, England.

When it comes to pink diamonds, 2017 was an important year for them. This is when the pink star was sold for $72.1 million at Sotheby’s auction in Hong Kong and broke the record for being the most expensive colored diamond to be ever sold at an auction. They only continue to be growing in value year after year. A high-quality pink diamond can even be sold up to $700,000 per carat, however, a less intense pink diamond would cost you about $10,000 per carat.

Yellow diamonds are another category that can be quite costly, but less costly than the other colored diamonds. They can cost around $2,500 to $20,000 per carat, depending on many different factors. The Graff Vivid Yellow was the most expensive yellow diamond ever sold. It was sold for $16.3 million in 2014 at Sotheby’s auction in Geneva.

Final Thoughts

You now know everything you need to about colorless diamonds as well as colored ones. They both have their distinct charm and while a flawless colorless one is rare, colored ones are rarer which is why they are so valuable and expensive. Don’t forget to look out for the 4 C’s when you buy yours!

Minerals

Everything You Need to Know About Aquamarines

February 27, 2021 HFM Leave a comment

Aquamarines are one of the most enchanting gemstones that you will come across.

They are known for their calming shades of blues and their ability to heal and bring about positive energy.

To add to that, they make for some of the most beautiful jewelry pieces! There’s so much about this stunning stone, so here is everything you need to know about aquamarines.

History of Aquamarine

The first thing that is intriguing is its name. You should know that this is, in fact, named after the sea because of its colors that look just like the colors of the sea.

The word ‘aquamarine’ in itself refers to a specific shade of blue. It is part of the Beryl family and is the birthstone of March. This gem has been known to protect sailors since Ancient Roman times. Interestingly, it wasn’t just Rome that believed in the powers of this aquamarine. Egyptians and Sumerians also believed that it was a symbol of happiness and youth.

Interestingly, during Medieval times, as early as 1377, this stone was seen as being an antidote for poison. Due to this reason, it was in high demand and it was believed that just by wearing it, one could prevent themselves from and cure themselves of poisonings. To add to that, they also believed that the mineral was great for reading fortunes when it was cut into a crystal ball.

Although the same stories and theories surrounding aquamarine may not exist today, it is still thought to be a stone that has plenty of positive effects for those who wear it. One of the common beliefs that still holds true is that wearing it will help your vision. Additionally, it is sometimes associated with cleansing and tranquility.

Where are the Aquamarines Found?

This gorgeous gem is predominantly found in Brazil; however, lots of African and Asian countries have become top sources for aquamarine deposits. Pakistan is known to have the best Aquamarine stones and others, such as China, Nigeria, Nepal and Russia are also famous for being a source of this crystal.

The Four Cs

The four Cs are the standard for mineral quality and subsequent costs associated with that quality, so let’s take a quick review of what these ‘C’s mean.

Color

It is no surprise that aquamarine comes in shades of blues, from an almost translucent blue to a lighter shade, going on to a deep blue. However, when looked at in its natural state, it will appear as a bluish stone with shades of greens.

It is interesting to note that the darker the shades, the more expensive the price. The deep blue color that you normally see is brought about by heating the stone to a high temperature. Heating it at different temperatures will bring about different colors and the resultant shades that are produced have become known to resemble the colors of the sea.

Clarity

The clarity of a stone is assessed according to how transparent it is. The higher the clarity, the higher the value of the stone. Such is the case for aquamarines. The ones with the highest clarity will not have any inclusions present and therefore it’ll be easier to heat them and cut them into an ideal shape. Aquamarines are generally known to possess good clarity and are durable stones.

Cut

When properly cut, given its amazing color and clarity, it can have a most radiant shine, making it look even more beautiful. Even though this stone can be cut into all sorts of shapes, the best ones are those that are cut based on the stone’s shine and play of light. Some common cuts that enhance its beauty are round, rectangle, pear and square.

Carat

This stone comes in a variety of sizes and you can choose your size based on your preference. From very small cuts to larger cuts that can weigh up to 100 lbs, the options are endless. The higher the weight of the stone the higher the carat. However, keep in mind that smaller stones don’t have as much vibrant color as compared to the bigger ones.

Jewelry

Because of its beautiful appearance and durability, aquamarine is perfect for almost any piece of jewelry. One of the popular ones is rings. These rings can be found in a variety of designs and they are also common in engagement rings. The best part about this stone is that it looks great on its own as well as when paired with other stones such as diamonds. It is a durable stone that is sturdy and therefore is a great pick. You can even use it as a stone in necklaces, earrings and bracelets.

How to Take Care of Your Aquamarines

Regardless of whether your aquamarines are loose or in a jewelry form, you still need to take good care of them. Clean them regularly so that they continue to shine. The way to do this is to use warm water, some light soap and an old toothbrush. Be careful not to wash it with hot water.

Generally, it is not a high maintenance stone. Do not expose it to chemicals in the house such as detergents or even perfumes and cosmetics. Keep in mind that this gemstone has a lower hardness rating and can end up getting scratched by other materials. Therefore, when storing it, store it in a pouch or box so that it stays protected.

Final Thoughts

Aquamarine is one of the most breathtaking gemstones you’ll find and one that has so much history attached to it. If you plan on getting one, make sure to check out its 4 Cs. It is relatively low maintenance so you don’t have to worry about taking care of it too much, but just clean it from time to time to retain its shine.

Geology

Green River Formation Fossils and How They Materialized

February 20, 2021 HFM Leave a comment

Small fossil found in the Green River Formation — Photo: Pixaby

Green River Formation – Overview

The Green River Formation is a geological pattern that records the Eocene‘s details (a period on the Earth that lasted from 56 to 33.9 million years ago). This fossil formation records evidence of life in a collection of lakes between mountains in three basins, known today as the Green River that flows in Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado.

Throughout its far-fetching lifetime, this water system is home to the largest accumulations of lake sediments and fossils worldwide. It extends for more than 25,000 square miles and reaches a depth of 2,000 feet or more; the Formation includes 14 different members (represented by different places in location and time).

The sediments on the river bed are deposited in ultra-fine layers. Each layer has a dark covering along with a light-hued inorganic layer of sediment. Each pair of layers is known as a varve, which reflects different years.

Green River Formation – Members

Haddenham Cabin, Fossil Butte National Monument — Fossil Butte Haddenham Cabin Photo: Wikipedia CC

Being the smallest and shortest-lived on the Green River Lakes, the Fossil Lake was preserved for two million years and is marked by three sedimentary Members.

The Angelo Member – The Angelo member is the youngest member of the Green River Formation. It was too salty to allow aquatic life, so it contains the least remains.
The Fossil Butte Member – The Fossil Butte member is sandwiched between the two members; Angelo and Road Hollow. It contains a record of a more significant number of aquatic species, including plants and animals. While it only represents a few tens of thousands of years, this member’s sediments contain the richest record of fossils from various aquatic organisms. The evidence from this member is greater than all the other Green River Members combined.
The Road Hollow Member – The oldest and thickest member representing Fossil Lake’s formation as it grew and deepened.

Green River Formation – Layers

While there are several layers within each member, there are two layers that are most productive; “18-inch bed” and the “sandwich bed.” The sediment deposits in this layer have records of life in shades of dull and dark, with bones of fish turning black and the scales remaining grey.

On the other hand, the “sandwich bed” is around 6.6 feet thick and holds a record of near-shores species typically fossilized in the shades of orange and brown.

When you look at the fossils from the two layers combined, you find evidence of various wildlife that has been uniquely persevered by nature.

Green River Formation – How was it Formed?

Diplomystus_and_Knightia_Green_River Formation — Fossil Fish from the GRF of Colorado. Diplomystus and Knightia fossil fish. Photo: Wikipedia CC

A Biosphere of Nature

Interestingly enough, the following is a perfect example of the formation of how ecospheres materialize through the wonders of nature.

The evidence of life from the Eocene has its own story to tell from an era that began around 50 million years ago. Green River Formation fossils reflect a time when the landscape formation was complete and mountains and plains were separate. And since the streams of water were draining into the lakes, they carried large amounts of sand, mud, minerals and silt. Over time, as the sediments continued to fill in the lakes, it altered the lake waters’ chemical composition. As a result, it became the breeding ground for a variety of plant species.

Enter Coal and Oil

Green_River_Formation_Oil_Gas_Fields_map (Wikipedia Public Domain)

The climate of the Green River at that time was warm and moist, which further facilitated plant growth; creating a dense community of vegetation; subsequently providing a continuous supply of leaves, seeds and branches.

Plant debris in the lake was protected by the swamp’s water cover that continued to grow thicker over time. With immense pressure for millions of years, the plant debris has now transformed into coal. Moreover, as the blue-green algae continued to thrive in the lake, it spread over different parts and formed thick scum which eventually sank to the lake’s bottom. Over time, the algae-rich sediments transformed into the largest oil shale resource on the planet.

Types of Fossils Found in the Green River Formation

Green River Formation is home to fossils in a variety of shapes and sizes. You can find evidence of life in the form of intact fossilization (where the entire body of the species is intact), and you can also find fossils as fragments of a different part of the body.

A possible explanation of this variation includes lake currents and the body’s state before fossilization and changing conditions within the lake system.

A specific species that we can look into is fish. You can find evidence of fossils within the Green River lakes ranging from complete disintegration to fully intact skeletons. In some species, there is evidence of fossilization with food still inside the body of the species. The variety of fossils indicate the environment inside the lakes continued to change throughout the Eocene.

What Makes Green River Formation Unique?

The Green River Formation fossils are one of the best-known sites for getting an insight into the Eocene. It gives exact information into what life was like millions of years ago. It contains evidence of hundreds of individual fish of different shapes and sizes.

Additionally, fossil plants are abundant, including ferns, palm leaves and sycamore leaves, indicating the possible plant species along the lakesides. Fossils of various other species, including mammals, snakes, turtles, birds, bats, birds and crocodiles have also been found in the Green River Formation, depicting the possible variety of more advanced species in the region millions of years ago.

Given its wide variety of fossils, Green River Formation is one of the best-known sites for paleontologists worldwide.

Jewerly, Minerals

9 Things You Need to Know Before Buying Yellow Sapphires

February 19, 2021 HFM Leave a comment

This Gemstone Comes in Various Shades of Yellow

Like all other colors, yellow comes in a variety of shades. From brighter shades, such as pastel light and lemon yellow, to deeper shades, such as an orange or golden yellow. This wonderful stone has some magnificent shades. Since color is a personal preference, you can opt for a shade that you like best. However, the most popular shade of the yellow sapphire is a medium vibrant canary.

The different hues of yellow-colored sapphires are a result of the trace element iron. The higher the concentration of iron in a gemstone, the higher the color saturation and the richer the hue will be. Also, the brighter and purer the yellow of a sapphire, the more valuable it will be.

They Usually Have Excellent Clarity

The best sapphire grades have perfect clarity. This means that they are visibly clear to the naked eye. This grade is followed by sapphires that have slight inclusions and the final grade has slight inclusions. Yellow sapphires are special because they have a reputation for having fewer inclusions than other colors. This is quite convenient for those who want to buy yellow sapphires, as even though these precious stones usually have excellent clarity, they are still available at reasonable prices.

Their Cut is Very Important

The cut of a gemstone doesn’t refer to its shape, but it refers to the facets on a gemstone’s surface that let light in, allowing its color to shine through. The cut of a gemstone is the main factor that affects its sparkle, especially when it comes to yellow sapphires. A poorly cut sapphire will look dull and lifeless.

Since yellow sapphires are less costly than blue or pink sapphires, gemstone cutters don’t compromise on their brilliance in favor of weight retention. This is why it is quite easy to find well-cut yellow sapphires compared to other sapphire colors. Also, it is especially important to have a good cut if a gemstone has a lighter color, darker-colored gemstones generally look lively even if they don’t have a perfect cut.

Some Yellow Sapphires Undergo Heat Treatments

Yellow sapphires usually undergo traditional heating treatments that enhance their color and overall transparency. Most of these changes are usually permanent. So, when buying a yellow sapphire, it is important to search for one that is untreated. The true beauty of the yellow sapphire stone lies in its natural and raw look. Also, natural sapphires are typically rarer and hold greater value.

It is a Rare Gemstone

Fine natural yellow sapphires are unique and rare. A few decades ago, jewelers wouldn’t recognize any other color of sapphires except for blue, and it wasn’t until the 1980s that there were some experiments conducted on pale yellow sapphires in Thailand. Eventually, it was due to these experiments that we got the many shades of yellow sapphires, placing them in the limelight.

They are One of the Hardest Stones

All sapphires, including yellow sapphires, are made up of a mineral called corundum. Moreover, this precious gemstone gets its color due to the trace elements of iron. Just like all other sapphires, the yellow sapphire is an incredibly tough and hard stone with a rating of 9 on the Mohs scale. A yellow sapphire is also scratch-resistant, which makes it a great gemstone choice for everyday jewelry, such as engagement rings.

They are Affordable

Let’s face it: yellow diamonds are an expensive gemstone choice for jewelry. Yellow sapphires, being an alternative to yellow diamonds, make for a great choice. This is because they have a beautiful color, excellent clarity and are quite affordable. You can easily find a beautiful yellow sapphire with fantastic quality within your budget. You can make it easier by filtering your choice according to the carat grade. The price of a yellow sapphire depends on its carats, color, cut, and clarity grade. So, there’s usually a yellow sapphire out there that suits everyone’s budget!

Yellow Sapphires Go Well With Any Metal

You can choose any metal to highlight a yellow sapphire. This is one of those gemstones that go well with everything. While a pastel and lighter-colored yellow sapphire may complement silver-colored metals, such as silver, white gold, and platinum, sapphires with a rich yellow color look great with darker metals including yellow gold and rose.

Yellow Sapphires are a Symbol of Wisdom and Prosperity

Sapphire is a September birthstone that is a representation gem of the zodiac Virgo. Yellow sapphires are especially popular in India due to their association with Vedic Astrology. Many people believe that natural sapphires, specifically the yellow ones, bring good luck, good energy, wisdom, and prosperity. Since the overall color and feel of this stone is bright, it is sure to cheer you up!

Jewerly, Minerals

Top 7 Colored Gemstones for an Engagement Ring

February 16, 2021 HFM Leave a comment

Colored Gem Rings — Photo: Charisse Kenion – Unsplash

Tired of traditional engagement rings? While crystal clear gemstones such as diamonds and white sapphires are popular engagement ring options, why not change things a little by opting for colored stones? A beautiful colored gemstone can amplify the appearance of your engagement ring and make it stand out in a crowd.

However, it’s important not to choose a gemstone based solely on its appearance. There are other factors that you must consider, such as its clarity, durability, and hardness. After all, this ring will be on your finger for a long time.

Here is a list of colored gemstones that make gorgeous engagement rings. Not only are these stones aesthetically magnificent but they can last an eternity.

Colored Diamonds

Add a twist to traditional diamond rings by choosing a colored diamond. Diamonds are one of the most popular choices for engagement rings and for good reason. With a hardness of 10 on the Mohs scale, this pricey gemstone is one of the most durable and scratch-resistant gemstones. When it comes to quality, there’s hardly any mineral that comes even close to diamonds.

With extraordinary dispersion and brilliance, this stone can turn white light into gorgeous flashes of color. Some of the most popular choices include sparkling pink, coal-black, champagne, and of course, canary yellow. However, pink diamonds rank amongst the most expensive, making them a great choice for engagement rings.

Sapphires

Sapphires are known as the gemstone of royalty. Not only were sapphires a popular choice for rings and other jewelry, but they still remain a noteworthy selection among celebrities and royalty. In fact, the Duchess of Cambridge, Kate Middleton adorned a beautiful sapphire engagement ring that once belonged to Princess Diana.

Even though sapphires are mostly associated with the color blue, they come in almost every hue except red. One of the most special features of colored sapphires is that they show two different colors, depending on the angle they are viewed from. Moreover, certain rare sapphires also change color, depending on the light source. Sapphires rank quite high amongst the hardest gemstones with a hardness of 9 on the Mohs scale, making them an excellent and classy choice for engagement rings.

Emeralds

Known as the ‘jewel of kings,’ emeralds are found in gorgeous greens, ranging from light to deep and dark shades. With a hardness of 8 on the Mohs scale, this precious gemstone is quite scratch-resistant but still requires special care. Apart from its stunning colors, it’s the fractures and inclusions of this stone that make every emerald unique and noteworthy. Even though these inclusions may impact its clarity and durability, this stone doesn’t shy away from the limelight.

Choosing the perfect emerald stone for an engagement ring requires some extra effort. However, their stunning color and rarity make them a particularly prized and special gemstone for a ring.

Rubies

When set in an engagement ring, a ruby gemstone will surely make a statement! Ruby is the coveted red variety of corundum, with the other colors of corundum being considered sapphires. While rubies have the same durability and hardness as that sapphire, they tend to receive more enhancements and treatments than the typical sapphire gemstone.

One of the most popular ruby choices is the ‘pigeon blood red’ ruby that has a faint purplish red with vivid saturation and a medium-dark tone. Rubies are a great choice for engagement rings due to their rarity, durability, and their association with love. Ruby as a centerpiece surrounded by diamonds will make a fitting choice for a one-of-a-kind engagement ring.

Amethysts

Amethysts are a popular and less pricey alternative to diamonds, making them a great choice for engagement rings. Amethyst gemstones are a beautiful variety of quartz found in shades of purple, ranging from lavender to a deep and dark purple. Although amethysts have a hardness of 7, which isn’t as hard in comparison to other stones, these gems have no cleavage panes, making them hard to break or scratch.

Whether you choose light lavender or dark purple, all the shades of the amethyst stone are a fitting choice for any jewelry pierces, especially engagement rings. Even though many believe that the symbolic association of this gem to calming passions seems like an odd choice for engagement rings, the fact is that this stone perfectly represents a more deep and enduring commitment.

Tourmalines

Tourmaline minerals in a box — Tourmaline minerals in a jewelry box

The tourmaline gemstone has an entire family of gems with various species in different colors. A popular tourmaline choice is the watermelon tourmaline that displays two or three zones of different colors. Just like quartz, this gemstone has a hardness of 7 and is free from any cleavages, making it a durable choice for engagement rings.

Green tourmalines are the most easily available and affordable of the tourmaline varieties, while Paraiba tourmalines are the rarest and expensive kind of tourmalines. Other tourmaline varieties include rubellite and indicolite tourmalines.

One of the most special aspects of tourmalines is their vitreous luster that makes their surface appear as glass when it’s hit by light. Also, while certain tourmaline varieties change color under distinct light sources, others display a cat’s eye optical effect. Either way, the tourmaline stone with its gorgeous luster will give you an engagement ring you will cherish for the years to come.

Citrines

Citrine is another gem that has become a popular option for engagement rings. With colors ranging from light yellow to golden, this stone truly looks regal. One of the most expensive varieties of citrines includes the Madeira citrines, which have a rich, orange collar, with hints of red. Like the quartz varieties, citrines also have a hardness of 7 and are durable stones for rings.

Whether it’s a colored diamond, sapphire, quartz, or citrine, colored stones not only look great but are an attractive alternative for an engagement ring.

Minerals

15 of the Most Underrated Gemstones

February 6, 2021 HFM Leave a comment

When it comes to gemstones, there’s a whole sea of them out there. Available in a vast range of colors, there’s one for everyone. While you may have heard of the more popular ones such as sapphire, ruby and emerald, there’s a lot more that are just as beautiful yet not as well-known. Some of these are so beautiful and have a high number on the Mohs scale too, but are unfortunately underrated.

However, some of them such as Tanzanite, are now gaining popularity and are up and coming. Here are 15 of the most underrated gemstones that will blow your mind!

1. Sunstone

This stone comes in the most beautiful warm shades of oranges and browns. It is a reflective stone and when light is shone on it it is super sparkly and looks like glitter. It is also considered to be the stone of good luck and is known to bring joy and happiness. They are definitely one of the most mesmerizing stones to look at and deserve way more attention than they normally get.

2. Zircon

Zircons are gorgeous beauties that look great on their own as well as when paired with other stones. They come in a wide array of colors ranging from yellows and greens to reds and browns. They also come in a clear color, which is one of its popular ones.

3. Peridot

This beautiful green stone is often one that goes unnoticed. It comes in an olive green hue and has a charm of its own. Ancient Egyptians considered it to be a stone that brought peace and harmony to those who wore it. Perfect when paired with other stones such as amethyst and quartz, peridot is definitely one of its kind.

4. Tanzanite

An old stone discovered in the ‘60s Tanzanite has only recently gained popularity. Many top-notch jewelry brands particularly Tiffany & Co have recognized it and it is now much in demand. This is because of its breathtaking shades of blue-ish purples. Just as the name suggests it is mined in Tanzania. It is popularly used as an engagement ring stone and is underrated although it is now up and coming.

5. Spinel

Often mistaken for rubies, spinel is available in the most stunning colors. Be it shades of pinks, purples, reds, blues, greens, browns, colorless and black, you name it! Its color is influenced by where it is mined and the minerals it has come into contact with during its creation.

6. Alexandrite

What makes this stone special is its color-changing ability. ‘Emerald by day, ruby by night’ is what it’s considered to be because of the way that it changes colors in the right. It is a unique and highly valuable gem that deserves a lot more attention.

7. Amber

It looks as delicious as it sounds! This age-old gemstone is known to bring with it wisdom and good luck. Its deep shades of reds and browns make it a stunning stone and it will definitely make some heads turn if worn as a jewelry piece.

8. Sodalite

This royal blue stone is just calming to look at. Because of its color, it is often mistaken for the Lapis lazuli. It is associated with bringing about emotional balance and boosting self-confidence. It would look great if worn as a necklace or even any other kind of piece of jewelry.

9. Paua Shell

A rare beauty, this stone is only found in New Zealand. It is also commonly referred to as the ‘sea opal’. This shell grows in the ocean and comes in the most beautiful shades of colors and patterns from greens and blues to purples and pinks. It is unique and would look super trendy if worn as jewelry.

10. Lolite

Violet in color, this stone is also referred to as the ‘water sapphire’. The stone appears to be different colors depending on the light and angle. It has a special sparkly effect when looked at in the sunlight. To add to that it is a much cheaper alternative as compared to sapphires and is known for its remarkable ability to balance one out.

11. Chrysoprase

Chrysoprase is a gorgeous stone that has a smooth texture yet is 7 on the Mohs scale of hardness, making it durable and great for everyday wear.This stone goes way back, the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans loved using this stone in their jewelry. It’s stunning color is unique and would look great if worn as a ring.

12. Jadeite

The more valuable variety of the jade stone, Jadeite is intensely green in color. It is an old and extremely valuable gemstone in many legends. The vibrant green gives it a special edge and makes it look funky and trendy.

13. Larimar

Famously referred to as the ‘stone of the sea’, this stone is extremely rare and is only found in the Dominican Republic. Light blue in color just like the sea, the stone was only available to locals for the longest time until it was finally mined. It is an intriguing shade of blue that would make for a great jewelry piece.

14. Garnet

Also the birthstone for January, Garnet is a stunning red stone that comes in other colors too such as greens, oranges, pinks and purples. Over 5000 years old, this stone has been used in jewelry for a long time. Even though its color is exquisite, it is still not as famous as Ruby’s and other stones and therefore is underrated.

15. Aventurine

This green stone is a variety of quartz. It contains gorgeous dots of shiny particles and has a glittery feel to it because of its metallic nature. It is known to attract good luck, wealth and opportunity and would look stunning if used in jewelry designs.

Each of these 15 gemstones is extremely unique and has its own beauty. They are definitely underrated and deserve a lot more attention. We would strongly suggest trying them out the next time you go stone shopping, instead of buying your usual ones!