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How to Optimize for Voice Search in 2023

May 3, 2023 HFM Leave a comment

Illustration of voice seach with man at microphone — Image: iStock

Voice Search Overview

Voice search is here to stay and will only be gaining momentum as we proceed into the future and for those that are in marketing or SEOs, it is important to stay up to date with these features and optimize accordingly.

The processes behind voice and text search are quite different. Voice search queries may be longer and more complex, as people tend to ask questions in a conversational style, while text queries are typically shorter and more direct.

Another difference is in the way search results are presented. In text search, results are typically displayed on a search engine results page (SERP), with a list of links and brief descriptions. In contrast, voice search typically provides only the most relevant result, read aloud by a virtual assistant or smart speaker; such as Apple Siri, Amazon Alexa, Google Assistant and Microsoft Corona. This means that optimizing for voice search requires a different approach to traditional SEO, with an emphasis on providing clear, concise answers to common voice questions.

Searching by sound is an SEO component that cannot be overlooked and with the accelerating advancements in artificial intelligence, it is imperative that web developers and SEOs keep a watchful eye on this evolving technology.

The Statistics

Laptop computer showing statistics — Photo: iStock

As of the writing of this article, 32% of people between the age of 18 and 64 use a voice search medium (Alexa, Siri, Corona, etc.) and that number will only grow as we move to the future.

Entering standard text search queries on mobile devices is commonplace, with over 60% of cell phone users text searching and 57% of mobile users taking advantage of voice search.

It should be no surprise that Google is the most successful interpreter of audio searches with a 95% accuracy.

In a study in 2021, 66.3 million households in the US were forecasted to own a smart speaker and that forecast has become a reality as of 2023.

Voice technology stretches beyond search queries as 44% of homeowners use voice assistants to turn on TVs and lights, as well as an array of other smart home devices currently on the market.

With statistics as these, speaking to robotic assistants is here to stay and will only be growing with new technologies as we proceed through the 2020s and beyond.

How Does Voice Search Work?

Woman speaking into a moblie phone — Photo: iStock

The Physics Behind It

If you just need to know that there is an analog-to-digital conversion and are not interested in the specifics of how it’s done, you can skip this part and go to the next section, which is “Where Does the Data Come From?“.

We will summarize the process of how the sound of human speech is converted into machine language, which is filtering and digitizing.

Filtering: Smart speakers and voice assistants are designed to recognize the human voice over background noise and other sounds; hence, they filter out negative sounds so that they can only hear our voices.

Digitizing: All sound is naturally created in analog frequencies (use of sinewaves). Computers cannot decode analog frequencies. They must be converted to the computer language of binary code.

Below are the details of how an analog signal is converted to digital.

The Analog Conversion Process

Illustration of a sine wave — Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay

|n order to make this conversion, an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) is required. The ADC works by sampling the analog signal at regular intervals and converting each sample into a digital value.

The steps are as follows:

1. Sampling: The first step is to sample the analog signal at a fixed interval. The sampling rate must be high enough to capture all the frequencies of interest in the analog signal. The Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem states that the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency in the signal. Sampling means taking regular measurements of the amplitude (or voltage) of the signal at specific points in time and converting those measurements into a digital signal. Sampling is necessary in order to convert analog sound waves into digital signals, which are easier to store, transmit, and process using digital systems such as computers or microcontrollers. The rate at which the analog signal is sampled, known as the sampling rate or sampling frequency, is important because it determines the level of detail that can be captured in the digital signal. Sampling an analog signal is an important step in converting it to a digital signal that can be analyzed, manipulated, or transmitted using digital systems.
2. Quantization: Once the analog signal is sampled, the next step involves assigning a digital value to each sample based on its amplitude. The resolution of the quantization process is determined by the number of bits used to represent each sample. The higher the number of bits, the greater the resolution of the digital signal.
3. Encoding: The final step is to encode the quantized samples into a digital format. This can be done using various encoding techniques such as pulse code modulation (PCM) or delta modulation.

Overall, the main process of converting analog to digital frequencies involves sampling, quantization, and encoding. The resulting digital signal can then be processed using digital signal processing techniques.

In summary: Smart speakers and voice assistants take in the audio from a person’s speech and convert it to machine language.

Where Does the Data Come From?

Outline of a computer screen wiht a cloud behind it — Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay

Information gathered from smart speakers and voice assistants pulls data from an aggregate of sources.

If you want your business to grow, you must be attentive to where content for voice search is collected so that you can make intelligent decisions regarding how to optimize for these devices.

Amazon Alexa

When Alexa responds to a query, it relies on Microsoft’s Bing search engine for the answer. Why? Because Amazon, as well as Microsoft, are in direct competition with Google, even though Google has the most popular search engine in the world.

Amazon’s refusal to use Google for audio responses is not something to be concerned about. After all, Bing’s search algorithms are very similar to Google’s.

With that said, if a person speaks to Alexa with a specific request, (e.g. “What’s the weather today?”), Alexa can pull that information from a database associated with that request. In this case, Alexa will connect to Accuweather. The device can access Wikipedia and Yelp if it needs to as well.

Apple Siri

Initially, Apple used Bing as its default search engine, but in 2017, Apple partnered with Google. Now, when you say “Hey Siri”, you can expect Siri to access the immense data repository from Google and supply the answer. This applies to the Safari browser for text searches as well.

There is a caveat though. When it comes to local business searches, Siri will call on Apple Maps data and will use Yelp for review information.

Microsoft Cortona

This one is probably the most straightforward out of all of the search engines, as Cortona relies on what else but Microsoft Bing for its information.

Google Assistant

OK, this one’s a no-brainer. Google can currently index trillions of pages to retrieve information and since this also applies to Apple’s Siri, this section is of most importance if you want to optimize voice search for these voice assistants.

In most cases, Google and Siri will read from Google’s featured snippet.

So What is a Featured Snippet?

Screenshot of a Google featured snippet — Image: © SMS

Featured snippets are what you see after you run a Google search query. It is a paragraph that appears at the top of the page that summarizes the answer to a question.

The information that Google applies to the snippet is gathered from, what Google determines to be the most reliable source (website) for that information.

How Does Google Determine a Featured Snippet?

For a snippet to be posted by Google, it needs to know that the source is trustworthy via its domain authority, link juice and high-quality content, to name three important organic factors, as any SEOs would already know, but in addition to these factors, Google will defer to “HowTo” and FAQ pages most often to pull in the snippet.

Is Structured Data Needed?

Structured data is extra code that helps Google better understand what the page or parts of the page are about.

One might wonder if structured data has to be used in order to provide the featured snippet? The answer is no. As per Google, as long as the web page is optimized properly and contains the questions that equate to the user’s query or voice search in this case, structured data is not necessary; however, if it wouldn’t hurt to put it in, as we all are aware that nothing is static in the SEO world and this rule can easily change in the future.

The reason why Google focuses on “HowTo” and FAQ pages is that their content reflects that of human speech. For example, an FAQ page on EV cars may have the question “How long do EV batteries last?” – That is exactly how a person would ask a voice assistant that same question!

An ‘Action’ for Google Assistant is created, equivalent to an Alexa Skill and Google will read the snippet back to the user to answer the question he/she asked.

Summarizing Optimization for Voice Search

Alexa

Bing: If you have not already done so, bring Bing into your scope of work for SEO and start optimizing for this search engine.

Yelp: We all know that reviews are of the utmost importance, so check out Yelp for your or your client’s business and build on those reviews! Legitimately of course.

Siri

Google SEO: If you are already optimizing for Google’s search, just keep up the good work.

Apple Factors: Where you might not be fully optimized is with Apple Maps, so get going. Start by registering with Apple Business Connect.

Yelp: And now Yelp is back in the picture!

Cortona

Bing: As mentioned, become an SEO Bing expert and you are ready to ask Cortona anything.

Google

Besides the standard organic optimization, focus on schema markup for HowTo and FAQ articles for voice search, which, if you’re lucky, will be shown on the SERP as a featured snippet.

There you have it. How to optimize for voice search. Let’s get these robots configured so that our businesses will be the first thing you hear from your voice assistant!

Computer Systems, Technology

The Pros and Cons of AI

May 2, 2023 HFM Leave a comment

Human hand touching a brain and AI hand touching a brain — Image by **Gerd Altmann from Pixabay**

Overview

Are you afraid of what AI can do or are you looking forward to the benefits it can provide? Part of your decision would be based on whether you feel that the glass is half full or half empty, but the reality is that there are always consequences to technological advancements. Hopefully, we can honestly say a lot of it will be for the good of humankind, but let’s not be naive and think three won’t be those nefarious individuals looking to selfishly benefit at the expense of the rest of us.

One example would be the development of the atom bomb, which was the result of Einstein’s theory of relativity, even though the scientist had no idea of the frightening consequences his theory would bring.

Enter AI

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a rapidly growing field that has the potential to transform our world in countless ways. From healthcare to finance, education and transportation, AI can benefit us in a myriad of ways, but not everyone is on board with this as we will see in this article.

Regardless, artificial intelligence is advancing at an exceptional rate whether we like it or not, as our AI avatars explain below.

So let’s take a look at both the positives and negatives of artificial intelligence and what it can potentially have for us and then you can decide.

The Benefits

Advancement on Healthcare

One of the most significant benefits of AI is its potential to revolutionize healthcare. AI can analyze vast amounts of medical data, including patient records, lab results and imaging studies.

With this information, its algorithms can detect patterns and make predictions that could help doctors diagnose and treat diseases more accurately and quickly than ever before. It can also help identify high-risk patients, allowing doctors to intervene early and prevent diseases from progressing.

Transportation

Artificial intelligence can be used to optimize traffic flow and reduce congestion and subsequently, travel time for busy commuters.

Moving not too far into the future are autonomous vehicles – cars that drive themselves. There are some being tested now, such as Teslar and Google and Teslar already has autonomous vehicles on the market, but a driver must remain inside.

When it does become mainstream, self-driving cars, buses and trains have the potential to significantly reduce accidents, traffic congestion, and pollution. By removing the human element from driving, these vehicles can make our roads safer and more efficient.

Education

A young man with long hair is working on a laptop. hands close up — Photo: iStock

Artificial intelligence can also be used to improve education. AI-powered tutoring systems can provide personalized, adaptive learning experiences for students of all ages and abilities.

By analyzing a student’s learning style, strengths and weaknesses, these systems can create customized lesson plans that help them learn more effectively. This can lead to improved academic outcomes and greater educational equity, as students who may struggle with traditional teaching methods can receive tailored instruction that meets their needs.

One caveat is the temptation for students to cheat by using apps such as Chat GPT, but alert teachers should be able to tell the difference by determining if the student’s writing style has changed. With that said, this will still be a challenge for educators.

Finance

Ai can be used to detect fraud, manage risk and optimize investments. By analyzing financial data, machine learning algorithms can detect patterns that may indicate fraudulent activity, alerting financial institutions to potential threats before they cause significant damage.

Additionally, it can help financial institutions manage risk more effectively by predicting market fluctuations and identifying potential investments that offer high returns with low risk.

Law Enforcement

AI-powered surveillance systems can detect potential threats in public spaces, alerting law enforcement and allowing them to respond more quickly.

It can also be used to analyze crime data, helping law enforcement identify patterns and allocate resources more effectively. Indeed, New York City Mayor Eric Adams introduced crime-fighting robots to the Times Square area and if they prove productive, they will be placed all over the city.

The Environment

Illustration of the effects of climate change, showing grass and then barren ground — Photo: iStock

By analyzing environmental data, AI can help us understand the impacts of human activity on the planet and develop strategies to mitigate them. For example, it can help us optimize energy consumption, reduce waste and improve recycling efforts. Additionally, AI can help us predict and respond to natural disasters, reducing their impact on human lives and property.

The Negatives

Of course, as with any powerful technology, AI also poses some risks and challenges. One concern is the potential for it to be used in ways that violate privacy or human rights.

Additionally, the use of AI in decision-making processes could result in biases or discrimination if the algorithms are not carefully designed and monitored. Finally, there is the risk that AI could become too powerful, leading to unintended consequences or even threatening human existence.

To mitigate these risks, we must approach AI development with caution and foresight. We must ensure that AI is developed and used in ways that prioritize human welfare and respect human rights. This requires ongoing dialogue and collaboration between technologists, policymakers and the public, as well as strict laws that prohibit collusion and/or intentionally skewing the algorithms.

Potential Dangers

Unknown person in black sourrounded by binary code — Photo: Pixabay

Artificial Intelligence can pose significant dangers that need to be addressed. Similar to the potential dangers of the use of quantum computers, the same threats are associated with AI.

The Labor Question

No doubt, unemployment due to artificial intelligence is a major concern. As this technology advances, it becomes increasingly capable of performing tasks that were once done by humans, leading to job loss and economic disruption.

For example, self-driving cars have the potential to replace human drivers, which would lead to unemployment in the transportation sector. This could result in a significant reduction in the workforce and an increase in social inequality.

Discrimination

Another danger is its ability to perpetuate biases and discrimination. Algorithms are designed to learn from data, and if the data used is biased, the AI will also be biased. This can result in unfair decisions being made, such as in hiring, lending, or criminal justice. It can have significant negative impacts on individuals and communities.

The Military

Photo: U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class Michael Moriatis/Released. Wikimedia CC.

AI could pose a significant threat to global security. With technological advancements increasing in this arena technology, it is becoming increasingly possible for computers to be used in cyber-attacks or even to control weapons systems. This could lead to significant risks and damages, such as loss of life or damage to critical infrastructure.

Malicious Financial Behavior

Woman gestering in awe looking at computer laptop — Photo: iStock

The financial markets would most likely be the most affected by artificial intelligence, both for good and bad. We have already discussed the good, but the bad is already a concern. There can be serious consequences that could affect the banks and stock market as nefarious individuals try to override the algorithms with corrupt data and computer instructions. The expression “What’s in your wallet” will have a much greater significance should malicious AI alter your bank accounts.

A Question of Morals

Finally, the development of AI could also pose ethical and moral dilemmas. As these algorithms become more intelligent, questions arise about their autonomy and decision-making capabilities. If an AI system makes a decision that is morally or ethically questionable, who is held accountable? What happens if an AI system is programmed to harm humans or perform unethical tasks?

AI in a Nutshell

Artificial intelligence can help us solve some of the biggest challenges facing our society. However, we must approach AI with caution and foresight, taking steps to mitigate risks and ensure that this technology is used in ways that prioritize humanity and respect human rights. With careful planning and collaboration, we can harness the power of Artificial Intelligence to create a better future for all!

Architecture, Engineering, Infrastructure

What’s the Difference Between a Building Spire and Antenna?

April 24, 2023 HFM Leave a comment

Introduction:

Many skyscrapers may feature protruding elements on their roofs that serve different purposes. Two common rooftop structures are spires and antennas. While both structures may appear similar from a distance, they have other functions and designs. This essay will explore the differences between building spires and antennas.

The Feud Between Spires and Antennas

One World Trade Center - Freedom Tower photographed from Broadway — One World Trade Center – Freedom Tower looking south from Broadway. Photo SMS ©

When the new One World Trade Center (AKA Freedom Tower) in New York City was completed, the owners laid claim that this was the tallest building in the western hemisphere, rising to a symbolic height of 1,776 feet. The number represents the year the Declaration of Independence was created.

Willis Tower Chicago — Willis Tower. Photo: Photos of a Lifetime ©

But all is not rosy when the owners of the Chicago Willis Tower had something to say about it. They claimed that the 408-foot steel attachment that was placed on the top of the Freedom Tower should not count and subsequently, the 1,451-foot Willis Tower should still be considered the tallest building in the western hemisphere.

Interesting note: The Empire State Building has a spire and an antenna!

Enter The Council of Tall Buildings

Someone needed to step in and resolve this and the international non-profit Council of Tall Buildings did just that and their conclusion was that the Freedom Tower is the tallest.

Reason is that there is a difference between a spire and antenna and spires count. Antennas don’t, of which they concluded that One World Trade Center has a spire.

Now let’s take a look and see why this is the case.

Function

The primary function of a building spire is to enhance the aesthetics of the structure. Spires can add architectural interest to a building and make it stand out in a cityscape. They come in different shapes and sizes and can be made from various materials, such as metal or stone. Spires can also have religious or symbolic significance, as they are often found in churches or other historical buildings.

Antennas, on the other hand, have a functional purpose. They are designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic waves, such as television or radio signals. Antennas can also be used for communication purposes, such as transmitting mobile phone signals or internet data. They are typically made of metal and are shaped to optimize the reception or transmission of waves.

Design

Spires and antennas have distinct designs that reflect their functions. Building spires are often ornamental and decorative and conform to the building’s architecture or aesthetic design.

They can be designed in various shapes and sizes, such as a pointed Gothic spire or a round domed spire. Spires are typically made of materials that can withstand weather and environmental factors.

Antennas, on the other hand, have a practical design that is optimized for their function. The shape of an antenna is critical to its performance in capturing or emitting electromagnetic waves.

Antennas can be designed in different shapes, such as a Yagi antenna or a dipole antenna, depending on the specific frequency range they are intended to operate within. The size and placement of an antenna are also crucial factors that can affect its performance.

Location

Spires and antennas are located on different parts of a building. Spires are typically located at the top of a building, either on the roof or on a tower. They are often used to create a distinctive silhouette or to draw attention to the building. Spires are usually visible from a distance, which makes them an essential part of a building’s architecture.

Antennas, on the other hand, can be located anywhere on a building’s roof or facade. The location of an antenna depends on various factors, such as the type of signals it is designed to capture or transmit and the obstacles in the surrounding area. Antennas can also be located on poles or towers outside of a building.

Regulation

The regulation of spires and antennas differs. Building codes typically regulate the design and construction of spires. There may be height restrictions or other regulations that limit the size or shape of a spire. Spires may also be subject to aesthetic guidelines to ensure they fit in with the surrounding architecture.

Antennas, on the other hand, are subject to a different set of regulations. In many countries, the construction of antennas is regulated by government agencies, such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States. These agencies are responsible for ensuring that antennas are safe and do not interfere with other electronic devices or signals. Antennas may also be subject to zoning regulations that limit their size or placement.

Conclusion

In summary, while building spires and antennas may appear similar from a distance, they have different functions, designs, locations, and regulations. Spires are decorative elements that enhance the aesthetics of a building, while antennas are functional structures that capture or emit electromagnetic waves.

The design of a spire is ornamental, while the design of an antenna is optimized for its function. The location of a spire is typically on the roof or tower of a building, while the location.

And there lies the reason why the Freedom Tower stands to be the official tallest building in the western hemisphere.

Artificial Intelligence, Computer Systems, Technology

Artifical Intelligence: The Pros and Cons

April 15, 2023 HFM Leave a comment

The Quandary of AI

Are you afraid of what AI can do or are you looking forward to the benefits it can provide? Part of your decision would be based on personality glass is half full or the glass is half empty, but there are always consequences to technological advancements, whether for the good of humankind or for those looking to gain an upper hand in a nefarious manner. The development of the atom bomb was the result of Einstein’s theory of relativity, even though the scientist had no idea of the negative consequences his theory would bring.

Let’s take a look at both the positives and negatives of artificial intelligence and what it can potentially have for us and then you can make a decision.

AI Overview

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a rapidly growing field that has the potential to transform our world in countless ways. From healthcare to finance, and education transportation, AI can benefit mankind in a myriad of ways, but not everyone is on board with this as we will see in this article, the good and the bad of the advancements of artificial intelligence.

The Benefits

Advancement on Healthcare

One of the most significant benefits of AI is its potential to revolutionize healthcare. AI can analyze vast amounts of medical data, including patient records, lab results, and imaging studies.

With this information, AI algorithms can detect patterns and make predictions that could help doctors diagnose and treat diseases more accurately and quickly. It can also help identify high-risk patients, allowing doctors to intervene early and prevent diseases from progressing.

Transportation

Another area where artificial intelligence can benefit us is in the field of transportation. Self-driving cars, buses, and trains have the potential to significantly reduce accidents, traffic congestion, and pollution. By removing the human element from driving, these vehicles can make our roads safer and more efficient.

Additionally, AI can be used to optimize traffic flow, reducing congestion and travel times. This can save time and money for individuals and businesses alike.

Education

AI can also be used to improve education. AI-powered tutoring systems can provide personalized, adaptive learning experiences for students of all ages and abilities. By analyzing a student’s learning style, strengths, and weaknesses, these systems can create customized lesson plans that help them learn more effectively. This can lead to improved academic outcomes and greater educational equity, as students who may struggle with traditional teaching methods can receive tailored instruction that meets their needs.

Finance

Detecting fraud, managing risk, and optimizing investments are just three of the ways AI is being used to advance the financial sector. By analyzing financial data, algorithms can detect patterns that may indicate fraudulent activity, alerting financial institutions to potential threats before they cause significant damage.

Additionally, AI can help them manage risk more effectively by predicting market fluctuations and identifying potential investments that offer high returns with low risk.

AI can also benefit society by improving public safety. AI-powered surveillance systems can detect potential threats in public spaces, alerting law enforcement and allowing them to respond more quickly. AI can also be used to analyze crime data, helping law enforcement identify patterns and allocate resources more effectively.

The Environment

Finally, AI can benefit mankind by helping us protect the environment. By analyzing environmental data, AI can help us understand the impacts of human activity on the planet and develop strategies to mitigate them. For example, AI can help us optimize energy consumption, reduce waste, and improve recycling efforts. Additionally, AI can help us predict and respond to natural disasters, reducing their impact on human lives and property.

The Benefits of AI – A Summary

AI has the potential to benefit mankind in countless ways. From healthcare to education, finance to public safety, and the environment. It can help us solve some of the biggest challenges facing our society. However, we must approach AI development with caution and foresight, taking steps to mitigate risks and ensure that it is used in ways that prioritize human welfare and respect for human rights. With careful planning and collaboration, we can harness the power of machine learning to create a better future for all.

Potential Dangers

Artificial Intelligence can pose significant dangers that need to be addressed. Similar to the potential dangers of the use of quantum computers, the same threats are associated with AI.

One concern is the potential for it to be used in ways that violate privacy or human rights. Additionally, the use of AI in decision-making processes could result in biases or discrimination if the algorithms are not carefully designed and monitored. Finally, there is the risk that it could become too powerful, leading to unintended consequences or even threatening human existence.

The Labor Question

As AI technology advances, it becomes increasingly capable of performing tasks that were once done by humans, leading to job loss and economic disruption. For example, self-driving cars have the potential to replace human drivers, which would lead to unemployment in the transportation sector. This could result in a significant reduction in the workforce and an increase in social inequality.

AI and Bias

Another danger of AI is its ability to perpetuate biases and discrimination. AI algorithms are designed to learn from data, and if the data used is biased, the AI will also be biased. This can result in unfair decisions being made by AI systems, such as in hiring, lending, or criminal justice. This can have significant negative impacts on individuals and communities.

Global Security

Furthermore, AI could pose a significant threat to global security. With advancements in AI technology, it is becoming increasingly possible for AI systems to be used in cyber-attacks or even to control weapons systems. This could lead to significant risks and damages, such as loss of life or damage to critical infrastructure.

Nefarious Exploitation

Finally, the development of AI could also pose ethical and moral dilemmas. As machine language systems become more intelligent, questions arise about their autonomy and decision-making capabilities. If an AI system makes a decision that is morally or ethically questionable, who is held accountable? What happens if it is programmed to harm humans or perform unethical tasks?

In a Nutshell

Artificial Intelligence Illustration AI — Image by Tumisu from Pixabay

While AI has the potential to bring significant benefits, it is important to be cautious in its development and use. The dangers of should be taken seriously and addressed through proper regulation and oversight. It is important to ensure that AI systems are developed and used responsibly and ethically to minimize the potential risks and maximize the benefits of this technology.

To mitigate these risks, we must approach AI with caution and foresight. We must ensure that AI is developed and used in ways that prioritize human welfare and respect human rights. This requires ongoing dialogue and collaboration between technologists, policymakers, and the public.

With that said, we do have the opportunity to live better in all aspects of our lives and it is well worth something for all of us to look forward to!

Engineering, Infrastructure

Suspension Bridges: How are They Constructed

March 26, 2023 HFM Leave a comment

Poyab Bridge under construction, Freiburg, Switzerland — Poyab Bridge under construction, Fribourg, Switzerland. Photo: iStock

Suspension bridges are among the most impressive engineering feats, with their long spans and elegant designs. These bridges rely on the strength of cables and towers to support the cables which provide safe passage over rivers, gorges, and other obstacles.

In this article, we will explore how suspension bridges are constructed.

Bridge Suspension Cables

Cables on Royal George Bridge - Colorado — Suspension Cable on Royal George Bridge – Colorado. Each cable is made up of 2100 galvanized steel wires. Photo: ©SMS

Once the towers are in place, the cables can be installed. The cables are assembled on the ground and then lifted into place using cranes or other heavy machinery. The cables are anchored to the towers using large steel plates, which are bolted to the tower and embedded in the concrete foundation. The cables are also anchored to the ground using massive concrete blocks, which are buried deep below the surface of the earth to provide a secure anchor point.

Suspension cables are an essential part of the suspension bridge design, which hold up the load (bridge deck or road) and are braced by towers on each side of the bridge. Anchoring the cables to the towers, or sometimes to the ground on both sides, enables the load to stretch across the entire span of the bridge without any further bracing required (e.g. truss or arches holding it up).

The cables are typically made of high-strength steel wires woven together that act as one unit. These cables can weigh thousands of tons and must be anchored securely to the towers and the ground.

The tension in the main cables is transferred to the suspension cables, which then transfer the weight of the bridge deck to the towers and anchorages at the ends of the bridge.

The towers provide additional support to the bridge and help to distribute the weight of the bridge evenly.

In the photo above of the Royal Gorge Bridge in the Rocky Mountains, Colorado, each of the cables consists of 2100 galvanized steel wires.

Bridge Deck

With the cables in place, the next step is to construct the bridge deck. The deck is typically made of steel or reinforced concrete and is suspended from the cables using hangers. The hangers are attached to the cables using large steel pins and are spaced at regular intervals to provide support for the deck. The deck is often assembled on the ground and then lifted into place using cranes or other heavy machinery.

Once the deck is in place, the final touches can be added. This includes the installation of guardrails, lighting, and other safety features, as well as the application of the final coat of paint. The bridge is then inspected to ensure that it meets all safety standards and is ready for use.

Summary

In conclusion, suspension bridges are an incredible feat of engineering, requiring meticulous planning, precision construction, and rigorous safety testing. The construction process involves the careful placement of towers, the installation of massive cables, and the suspension of the bridge deck. Despite the challenges involved, suspension bridges have become an iconic symbol of human ingenuity and technological advancement, connecting people and places all over the world.

Architecture

The Iconic Chrysler Building

February 4, 2023 HFM Leave a comment

Overview

Chrysler Building form 42nd Street — Photo: ©SMS

Still the tallest brick building in the world and currently, the 11th tallest building in NYC, the Chrysler Building has been noted as one of the most graceful art-deco buildings ever built, the 1,046-foot (319 meters) skyscraper adorns the New York skyline with its silver spire, eagles, and scary gargoyles.

Constructed by Chrysler Car Corporation, the building was designed to reflect the automotive industry with a decorated granite lobby, a showroom for the latest Chrysler cars, and its hood ornaments enriching the building’s exterior which is designed to resemble radiator caps.

Architect William Van Alen designed this masterpiece.

Location

New York City donated the land between 42nd and 43rd streets and Lexington Ave to The Cooper Union school in 1902 before the Chrysler Corporation took it over in the 1920s.

Located just west was the Grand Hyatt Building, now being demolished to make way for the supertall 175 Park Avenue, which wasn’t without controversy since many feel it will block the skyline view of the Chrysler from the west side.

The Design

Close up collage of the Chrysler Building — Radiator caps on the Chrysler Building’ Photo: ©SMS

The Chrysler Building is laminated with Nirosta stainless steel, which is a metallic alloy of 18% chromium and 8% nickel, but contrary to popular opinion, the structure does not have scary gargoyles.

Starting on the 31st floor, we see radiator caps, relative to the year the building was constructed, and embellished, and then, moving up to the 61st floor, we find silver eagles, representing the official bird of the United States.

The eagles that some do call gargoyles are made of stainless steel and are approximately 20 feet tall, including the pedestal they stand on. They were designed to be both decorative and functional, serving as lightning rods to protect the building from strikes.

There are a total of 50 ornaments in all that adorn the Chrysler Building. The skyscraper contains 3,826,000 bricks a total of 3,862 windows.

Engineering

The Chrysler Building does not have gargoyles. Instead, it features eagle head sculptures called “Eagle Gargoyles” or “Eagle Finials” on the corners of the 61st floor. These sculptures were designed by American sculptor William Van Alen, who also designed the rest of the building’s decorative elements.

The eagle gargoyles are made of stainless steel and measure approximately 20 feet tall, including the pedestal they stand on. They were designed to be both decorative and functional, serving as lightning rods to protect the building from strikes.

The building has a solid core that stabilizes the structure and setbacks that help deviate wind forces.

Spire War

Top of Chrysler Building Includig Spire — Top of Chrysler Building Including Spire. Image by Pexels from Pixabay

During its construction, the building was in the midst of a battle with Lower Manhattan’s Bank of Manhattan at 40 Wall Street (now owned by Donald Trump) regarding who would have the tallest building in the world.

The Chrysler Building was rising four floors a day and in 1929, both buildings reached 925 feet, but 40 Wall’s architect H. Craig Severance added two more feet to the top of his building, laying claim that it is now the world’s tallest building.

This distinction lasted briefly as William Van Alen secretly built a seven-story, twenty-seven-ton spire inside the Chrysler Building. Just a few weeks after the Bank of Manhattan claimed its fame, Van Allen lifted the spire through the roof of the Chrysler Building, and within 1½ hours, it became the world’s tallest, soaring 77 stories and 1,046 feet high (319 meters), beating the Bank of Manhattan by 119 feet.

It wasn’t long before the Chrysler Building would lose its status though, as the Empire State Building topped it out only one year later in 1931.

The Observatory

Back in the day, there was a speakeasy on the 66th, 67th, and 68th floors called the Cloud Club and there was an observatory, but for over 60 years, this has not been the case. That will all change soon. In 2020, the Landmarks Preservation Commission approved rebuilding a new observatory on the 61st floor, right alongside the eagle ornaments.

Construction has not started yet but you can sign up for it and be notified when the observatory becomes a reality.

Chrysler’s Beauty Endures

No matter what skyscrapers might encircle it, nothing will keep the building’s brilliant art-deco stainless steel design and its majestic spire from decorating the City of New York skyline. Many consider the Chrysler Building to be the most beautiful in the city.

Astromony, Uncategorized

Potential Life-Sustaining Planets are Closer and Closer

January 15, 2023 HFM Leave a comment

SMACS 0723A galaxy cluster — Infrared light shows the deepest view of distant galaxies ever photographed. JWST Photo: NASA Public Domain

Overview

The question of extraterrestrial life on other worlds has baffled even the foremost scientists for millennia. With the Hubble telescope and now, the James Webb telescope floating in the cosmos a million miles from Earth, we are finding more and more life-sustaining planets on a frequent virtual basis.

This is different from space observatories, which can determine the existence of exoplanets by spectrum analysis, calculating their gravitational pull from their sun, or using the transit method—an observational process whereby a star changes in brightness when a planet is seen orbiting around it. The JWST’s advanced technology surpassed those methods by taking pictures of these exoplanets. This is the first time this has ever been done!

Exoplanets with Life? Maybe!

In 2013, a team of astronomers led by Dr. Duncan Wright from the University of New South Wales discovered the Wolf 1061 System using the HARPS spectrograph, part of the European Southern Observatory’s telescope in La Salla, Chile.

This solar system contains an inactive red dwarf star, orbited by possibly seven planets, including three super-Earths. These planets may be capable of supporting life as we know it, as they have a low enough mass to be potentially rocky with a solid surface.

The most interesting of the three planets is Wolf 1061c. At four times the size of the Earth, it is the closest habitable planet outside our solar system. It also sits in the Goldilocks Zone, close enough to its sun to contain liquid water and support life with its mild temperatures.

Artist's impression of the planetary system around Wolf 1061 — Artist’s impression of the planetary system around Wolf 1061. Photo: Wikipedia Public Domain

Based on these readings, scientists speculate that iron deposits, as well as silicates (elements that contain the minerals silicon and oxygen), may exist on the planet, which are very common.

Still, with the hope of Wolf 1061c sitting right next door, scientists are now hopeful that they can test the planet’s atmosphere in more detail once it passes across the face of its star, making the not-so-lone Wolf planet easier to study and determine if it has the potential to sustain life.

Even though rocky planets similar to our own and multi-planet systems are known to be abundant in our galaxy, most of the ones discovered are hundreds, if not thousands, of light years away. They are too far for us to reach using current technology.

Life is Out There

Illustration of an extraterrestrial — Photo: iStock

Here, we list a sampling of just a few exoplanets that could sustain life.

WASP-39 b

In 2022, the James Webb Telescope discovered a planet called WASP-39 b in the Virgo constellation. Known as ‘Bocaprins’, the planet orbits a star about 700 light-years from Earth. Scientists were surprised to see that this planet’s atomic structure resembles water and carbon – two of the essential ingredients of universal life.

Kepler-186f

But that’s not all. Planets such as Kepler-186f are among those astronomers say have a perfect chance of potential life relative to the hundreds of other planets discovered outside our solar system. Kepler-186f is the first exoplanet found to be in the habitable zone. Slightly larger than Earth, it is 490 light-years away, which is not too far.

Kepler-22b

Another close neighbor in the habitable zone is Kepler-22b. This body is about 150 light-years further away than Kepler-186 but has the promise of life just the same. It is about 15% closer to its sun than our Earth is to our sun, but its sun is smaller than ours, so there is a compensation effect where these two factors cancel each other out.

Subsequently, it still allows the planet to remain in the habitable zone. Kepler-22b has a surface temperature of 72℉. This sounds like a good vacation spot when we get to that point of space travel. For Star Trek fans, you can envision the beautiful planets the crew visited when on shore leave. Well, not so fast.

Kepler-22b might be more on its axis than Earth, meaning half of the planet may have all sunlight 24×7, and the other half may be in complete darkness for every (of that) planet’s six months. Further studies have revealed that the planet may be 90% ocean or more, compensating for seasonal issues.

Additionally, Kepler-22b has been calculated to have a much stronger gravitational pull than our planet, so walking on this planet may be as hard as walking briskly through the water at the same speed as walking on land.

But if there are creatures on this planet, intelligent or not, natural evolution may cause these beings to look much different from us. Due to the planet’s strong gravitational pull, the aliens may have budging feet full of muscles that would make the strongest man in the world look like a stick figure. They may have more than just two or four legs. Additionally, their internal organs would have to be naturally engineered to handle the physical stresses of the planet’s strong gravity, such as an overly large heart.

The Day the Earth May Stand Still

If Kepler-22b is life-sustaining, it would take astronauts 635 years to get there. Since that is out of the question for us, if intelligent life exists there or on other planets, their technology might provide a quicker way to visit us. But is that what we would want?

Architecture, Engineering

The Freedom Tower – From Construction to Completion

January 9, 2023 HFM Leave a comment

Overview

From tragedy to triumph, a tower soars 104 stories, 1,776 feet high, representing the year the Declaration of Independence was signed.

One World Trade Center (AKA The Freedom Tower) opened to businesses on November 3, 2014, and the three-story observatory, which opened on May 29, 2015, invites visitors to a spectacular view of the New York skyline.

Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, famous for designing some of the most notable modern tall buildings throughout the world, were the primary architects, under the supervision of designer David Childs. The firm, also known as SOM, was the architect of the Burj Khalifa and Chicago’s Willis Tower (formerly the Sears Tower).

The Preliminaries

Soon after the tragic destruction of the original World Trade Center (Twin Towers), the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation initiated proposals for the reconstruction of a new tower, as well as a plan to memorialize the victims of the September 11 attacks.

When the public rejected the first round of designs, a second, more open competition took place in December 2002, in which a blueprint by Daniel Libeskind was selected as the winner. This design went through many revisions, mainly because of disagreements with developer Larry Silverstein, who held the lease to the World Trade Center at that time.

Construction began on April 27, 2006, but not after continuous delays and ongoing bureaucracy, including disputes between the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and the developer Tishman Realty & Construction. The Tishman construction firm was famous for its participation in building some of the tallest buildings in New York City, including the original World Trade Center complex and the John Hancock Center in Chicago. John Tishman died on February 6, 2016.

Security Preparations

Bird's eye view of "ground zero" after the 9/11 attacks and before construction of the Freedom Tower — Bird’s eye view of “ground zero” after the 9/11 attacks and before the construction of the Freedom Tower. Photo: SMS – Photos of a Lifetime ©

No doubt that security was a prominent concern in the design and construction of this tower, and terrorism was indeed a major consideration.

No one was more concerned than the NYPD, and after many debates and delays, the final proposal for the Freedom Tower 11-Year was approved and shown to the public on June 28, 2005, with a 187-foot base of concrete added.

Additionally, the building had installed stainless steel panels and blast-resistant glass. The Freedom Tower is designed to withstand earthquakes and has an elaborate security facility integrated within it.

In addition to 24×7 monitoring, there is a high-tech security system that includes video analysis in which computers would alert security personnel to abnormal situations automatically.

There are additional security apparatuses that have been installed, but their actual function has not been made public. What is known is that there are radiation detectors abound in lower Manhattan and the NYPD Hercules Team is ready at a moment’s notice.

Building the Skyscraper

On November 18, 2006, 400 cubic yards of concrete were poured onto the building’s foundation.

On December 17, 2006, a ceremony was held in Battery Park City, with the public invited to sign a 30-foot (9.1 m) steel beam. The beam was welded onto the building’s base on December 19, 2006. Construction was slow but continuous.

Collage of WTC Freedom Tower under construction — One World Trade Center (Freedom Tower) under construcion. (L-R) March 2010 and November 2011. Photo SMS

In 2012, workers installed the steel framework at the top of the tower to support the 408-foot spire. The spire was fabricated as 16 separate sections at a factory near Montreal, Quebec, and was transported by barge to New York City in mid-November of that year.

On May 10, 2013, the final component of the skyscraper’s spire was installed, making the building, including its spire, reach a total height of 1,776 feet, representing the date of the Declaration of Independence.

Negotiating the Wind Forces

Optimizing One World Trade Center for high winds was unique as the tower’s design included a geometrical shape that helps reduce exposure to wind loads.

Additionally, the core has reinforced concrete which provides the main support against resistance to the wind forces and other forces of nature.

The Observatory

View from Freedom Tower Observatory of downtown Manhattan taken on opening day. Photo: SMS – Photos of a Lifetime ©

The One World Trade Center observatory opened on May 29, 2015, and is currently the highest of the four observatories in the city at 1,268 feet.

There are three floors, including exhibits and a restaurant.

The most convenient way to purchase tickets would be to purchase them online.

Surrounding Area

World Trade Cener North Tower Reflecting Pool — World Trade Center North Tower Reflecting Pool. Photo: Wikimedia Public Domain

Visitors who come to the Freedom Tower should also visit the 911 Memorial, which is a tribute to the 3,000 people who were lost, including the first responders.

The memorial contains the footprints of the former Twin Towers. It has continuous running water over two one-acre pools, one for each of the towers, called “Reflecting Absence“, signifying the physical void left by those who were lost.

Architecture, Engineering

Skyscraper Wind Forces and How to Overwide Them

January 1, 2023 HFM Leave a comment

NYC Midtown Skyline Western View — NYC Skyline Looking West from Long Island City. Photo: Photos of a Lifetime ©

Overview

Skyscrapers are defined as being at least 330 feet (100 meters) high with supertalls classified as 984 feet (300 meters) and mega tall at 1,968 feet (600 meters) or higher.

From the Burj Khalifa in Dubai to the Shanghai Tower in China and the Empire State Building in New York, there is no doubt that these structures are a marvel of modern engineering and they stand as a testament to human ingenuity and perseverance. For architects and engineers, the challenge to design them is complex.

From the foundation to the roof, they are carefully planned and executed by scivi engineers, which might take years to complete before even one brick is laid down. Considerations towards building codes, structural stability, aesthetics, and of course economics are primary factors to be studied.

Exploring the making of skyscrapers is an exciting journey for anyone interested in how tall buildings are constructed. This article is a credit to the dedication to the architects and engineers who build them.

Enter the Forces of Nature

Burj Khalifa, Dubai, UAE – Tallest Building in the World. Photo by Wael Hneini on Unsplash

Wind loads (wind forces) that hit the buildings can cause them to sway. The higher the building is, the more wind it will be subject to.

Skyscrapers will sway and can easily move several feet in either direction.

To reinforce the structure to withstand these winds, there are several options that engineers will use.

Empire State Building – A Prime Example of Mitigating Wind Forces

Before we delve into the engineering specifics, let’s get familiar with the general idea of how buildings suppress wind forces and what better example to use than the famous Empire State Building?

Most tall buildings use multiple methods to mitigate strong winds, so let’s take a look at what engineers have done with this 1,472-foot-high iconic structure.

Streamlined shape: The building has a tapered shape that reduces wind resistance and helps to distribute wind forces evenly across the building. More commonly known as setbacks.
Wind bracing: The building has a series of steel braces that run diagonally between the exterior columns, which helps to provide additional support and stability against wind forces.
Corner columns: The building’s corner columns are larger and stronger than the interior columns, which helps to distribute wind forces more evenly throughout the building.
Tuned mass damper: The building has a large pendulum-like device called a tuned mass damper located on the 58th floor. The damper helps to counteract wind-induced building oscillations by moving in the opposite direction of the building’s sway, effectively damping out the oscillations.

Now let’s take a look at the process from start to finish.

Designing the Structure

3D rendering of a modern building with construction using CAD software — 3D rendering with construction specifications using CAD software. Photo: iStock

Economics always comes into play, so whatever the planned design is, it must be within the developer’s budget. Architects use computer-aided design (CAD) software to create 3D models of a building.

Usually created on networked desktop computers, CAD is used primarily for analyzing and optimizing a building’s design.

Of course with skyscrapers, there may be hundreds of CAD diagrams that would be needed. The software includes the building codes that they must follow.

Building the Foundation

It should go without saying that structural stability is of the utmost importance and the foundation is the first step in helping to buttress the building from the forces of nature to which these buildings may be subject.

Beginning with the foundation, engineers must determine if the soil below the building is strong enough to support the structure. A good example is in New York City where there is solid bedrock that makes it perfect for the construction of skyscrapers.

Rebar at construction site on Long Island — Rebar ready for pouring of concrete at a construction site. Photo SMS ©

Steel and concrete are the most commonly used materials for foundations. Concrete is strong under compression, but not as strong under tension, and in its pure form, it is unsuitable to withstand the stresses of the wind forces and vibrations,

To compensate for this lack of tensile strength, workers pour a liquid concrete mixture into a wire mesh steel frame, called rebar or reinforcing bar, which strengthens the tension component of the concrete. Together, the product is known as reinforced concrete and forms a strong solid foundation to support any tall building.

Strong Internal Cores

One of the most popular methods for mitigating wind forces is the ability to build strong cores in the center of the building. Usually constructed around the elevators are solid steel and/or concrete trusses, braced by steel beams.

Most of the tall buildings of the 20th century use this method and it is still going strong into the 21st century, but usually, there are more obstacles to the wind added, especially if the building is of the super or mega tall variety.

Corner Softening

Taipei 101 in Tiawan China — Taipei 101 in Taiwan China uses corner softening to dampen the winds

This is a style that softens the edges of tall buildings to reduce the vortices (strong winds) that these structures are subject to.

The 1,667-foot Taipei 101 in Taiwan uses this method which is very effective in controlling high winds.

But that’s not all Taipei 101 uses against wind vortices as we will see below.

Setbacks

New York Telephone Building NYC 1926 — Lower Manhattan’s NY Telephone Building was one of the first to employ the setback method. Photo: ©Joseph H. Sachs 1926

In 1916, due to the shadow effect that tall buildings would leave on the sidewalks of New York, specifically, the 555-foot tall Equitable Building that was completed a year before, a new zoning law was enacted that would force developers to apply setbacks to all tall buildings.

New York City’s Empire State Building and Chrysler Building are excellent examples of setback design, as well as examples of the esthetic beauty of the art deco structures of that time.

Not only were setbacks desirable but, from an engineering point of view, they helped to diminish the harsh winds that tall buildings were subjected to.

Twisting

Spiraling skyscrapers are becoming more popular. Not just for their aesthetic appeal, but also because of their ability to reduce wind vortexes by up to 24%.

For the Shangai Tower, this resulted in a reduction of $58 million that the developers did not have to add to buttress the building.

Even more, aesthetically pleasing is the 1,417-foot tall Diamond Tower in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. If that’s not intriguing enough, there is the 1,273-foot Dubai Tower that not only twists but also rotates 360 degrees. Built by Italian/Israeli architect David Fisher of Dynamic Architecture, the building gives spectators and residents alike an ever-changing view of the Dubai skyline.

Tubular System

The Willis Tower in Chicago is an excellent example of a building that employs the tubular method for addressing wind forces.

This super tall consists of a collection of nine tubes supporting each other, subsequently buttressing the building to fight off the winds more than if it was just one straight up-and-down structure.

Additionally, since they level off at different heights, the wind forces are inherently disrupted.

Cutout

A less used method but efficient nonetheless. The wind is allowed to pass through specific areas of a building. which reduces the wind loads on the building. Below is an animation demonstrating how the building negotiates the wind forces using cutouts on various floors.

When employing the cutout wind method, other methods of wind optimization are used along with it. New York’s 432 Park Ave makes use of this system. Additionally, the building uses the tuned mass damper system as described in the next section.

Tuned Mass Damper (TMD) (AKA harmonic absorber)

Tuned Mass Damper illustration for Taipei 101

Large, heavy dampers, usually near the top of the building compensate for building vibrations, such as high winds. Similar to a pendulum that sways back and forth, these dampers will move against the wind thereby stabilizing the building.

In technical terms, the mass damper is designed to work in harmony with the oscillation frequency of the building from the wind, thereby reducing the overall sway of the structure.

Combination of the Above

Many times, a multiple of these strategies are used to tackle the vortices, and in so doing, they can be very effective in taming the wind.

Constructing the Superstructure

The superstructure is the actual building, more specifically, it is the framework that connects the foundation to the roof, and this is where the CAD model is pertinent. The CAD model will help to identify the best location for the support columns, known as the centroid.

Engineers will select the most economical material and size of steel for these columns. They must also ensure that the columns are spaced far enough to resist both wind and potential seismic forces. Consideration will go into the type of concrete material and the size of the floor slabs, based on how much weight the slabs must support.

They must also consider the thickness of the slabs based on the amount of deflection allowed by the building codes, but we’ll leave the details of these considerations to another article that provides the specifics of these components.

Structural Engineering in a Nutshell

Watch this video which lays out the concepts of the engineering techniques required to build a tall building.

Summary

The engineering behind the making of skyscrapers is a complex and lengthy journey. When engineers design a supertall, they must consider many different aspects of the project. They must select materials that can withstand the forces of nature such as high winds, heavy precipitation, and even earthquakes.

They must also ensure that the building is structurally sound. In today’s skyscrapers, you can rest assured that the hard work and dedication that was put into each of these buildings by the architects, engineers, and construction workers make these buildings sound and secure.

Technology

An In-depth Look at How Steam Engines Work and Their Impact on History

December 29, 2022 HFM Leave a comment

A steam powered locomotivec — Photo: iStock

‍Overview

The power of steam has had a significant impact on the history of humankind and the concept of how they work is fascinating. From the Industrial Revolution to the modern day, steam engines have been used to power the world in a variety of ways.

In this article, we’ll take an in-depth look at how steam engines work and the impact they’ve had on history. We’ll explore the science behind how steam is generated and how its energy is used to power machines.

We’ll also discuss the various applications, from powering locomotives to generating electricity. By the end of this article, you’ll have a comprehensive understanding of the science, history, and impact of steam engines.

History

SS Savannah Hybrid Steamboat — SS Savannah. Half steamboat, half sailboat.

The first steam engines were used in the mid-17th century to pump water out of gold and silver mines. The first steam-powered ship, the SS Savannah was launched in 1819. However, it wasn’t until the mid-19th century that steam engines were widely used for industrial production.

While the first steam-powered locomotive was built in 1829, it wasn’t until the 1850s that railroads began to widely use them.

The Industrial Revolution was a time of incredible innovation and growth in the mid-19th century. The invention of the steam engine during this period greatly contributed to its growth.

Many of the machines and products we use every day were first developed during this period. Engines powered by steam were used to power textile mills and other industries. They drove a variety of machines, from looms to cranes. They were used to power the bellows (furnaces) for forges. Forges were used to make swords, knives, agricultural tools, and many other metal products.

How Steam is Generated

Before we can discuss how steam engines work, we first need to understand how the energy source for these engines is produced.

Boiling Point

Steam is the result of water being heated past its boiling point. When water is heated past 212° F (100°C), it turns into a gas, which is steam. The result is that the volume of steam (the amount of space that a substance or object occupies) is always greater than that of water; therefore, it will want to push its way out of the container if the container is not large enough to hold it.

This is why it is recommended not to place aerosol spray cans near heating sources. The spray is in liquid form but if it is near a heating source and the liquid starts to boil and turns into steam, there is a chance that the can will explode since the steam needs to expand.

The mechanism for Boiling the Water

Boilers are what are used to boil the water into steam. There are several types of boilers, but they all have one thing in common: they are enclosed vessels that contain water.

Steam boilers are used to power a variety of machines. The most well-known application was to power locomotives. As we mentioned above, when water is converted into steam, the steam will push its way out and if this force of pressure is harnessed in a way that it can be regulated, it becomes a source of energy that can become very useful.

In the steam engine, there are openings in the boiler to let the steam out, and when this steam comes out, it becomes a force pressure on which anything it touches will have an effect; in other words, if there is a wheel barrel next to where the steam is thrust out, it will propel the wheel barrel quite a distance.

Enter the Piston

Diagram of a piston — Steam enters the cylinder (red pipe) and pushes the piston down. Steam stops and the piston moves back up. This cycle repeats itself until the process is stopped. Animation: Wikimedia Public Domain.

If the steam is connected to a piston, which is a cylindrical body inside a container (noted in green), usually metal that slides down when a force hits it (in this case steam), it will move, and if another object is connected to the piston, (where the white hole is at the bottom) such as a wheel, the piston will then move the wheel.

Now picture a row of pistons set up to move when the power of the steam hits on it, it can then move any number of wheels.

Pistons have an additional feature and that is their ability to move back up to the top of their cylinder once the force of the steam stops, and if this process is regulated so that the steam comes out at regular intervals, the wheels that the pistons are connected to will keep on rolling.

This is how steam locomotives work, not to mention steamboats and machinery in factories as you will read further on.

Steam engines are also used to generate electricity in power plants. When it is generated in a boiler and then forced through a turbine, it spins a wheel, which is connected to a generator. This generates electrical energy via electromagnetism (the creation of electric current by spinning magnets).

Applications of Steam Engines

Locomotives

Steam Locomotive — Photo by 44833 on Pixabay

Locomotives were all the rage in the 19th and early 20th centuries and it was the most common application of steam engines during the Industrial Revolution.

They were used to pull freight and passenger trains and were especially useful for transporting goods over long distances since they were much more efficient than horse-drawn wagons.

Additionally, these trains were able to climb steep hills.

Ships

Many people think that steam engines came into widespread use on land, but they were also used to power ships. Ships were initially powered by wind and muscle power, but when the power of steam came along, they were used to power commercial ships in the early 1800s.

Steam engines were used in larger ships, such as steamships, which sailed between Europe and the United States. A perfect example is the Titanic. Although it came to a tragic end it was a giant and beautiful steamship that traveled across the Atlantic and powered everything from the kitchen cooking appliances to the giant pistons that moved the ship.

Automotive

Steam engines are used to power automobiles in two ways. Some steam cars use a steam engine to power the wheels. Others use steam to generate electricity that can be used to power an electric motor. Steam cars have a long history dating back to the early 1900s. They were used throughout the 20th century until they were largely replaced by internal combustion engines.

Factories

Another common use was to power factories. They were used to mass-produce goods, and the engines were used to power the machinery that was used to produce goods, such as lathes, looms, and other industrial machinery.

Modern-Day Uses of Steam Engines

As we progress into the 21st century, the employment of steam is still being used for various purposes. They are often used in remote areas, such as deserts and mountains, where electrical grids are not available. In these areas, steam engines generate electricity.

Power Generation

Electrical power plants are no exception and there are still power grids in the US and around the world that use steam to generate electricity. The steam used in a power plant is usually generated by burning coal or natural gas, which then drives the pumps that transport water uphill.

Conclusion

The impact of steam engines on history can’t be overstated. It is estimated that steam engines powered about 90% of the world’s industrial production around the start of the 20th century, which greatly contributed to the growth of many industries.

The textile industry, for instance, could not have grown to its current size without the use of steam. They were used to power the looms that were necessary for producing textiles on a large scale. Steam engines also helped transform the iron and steel industry. Before the invention of steam engines, the iron was produced in small forges. Once steam engines were used in forges, iron production could be carried out at larger scales. It also contributed to the growth of agriculture by powering irrigation systems.